Carbon-based nanomaterials against SARS-CoV-2: Therapeutic and diagnostic applications

COVID-19, which was first spread in China in 2019 and consequently spread worldwide, is caused by the SARS-CoV-2. Today, various carbon-based nanomaterials such as graphene, graphene oxide, carbon dots, and carbon nanotubes have been explored for the specific detection and targeted inhibition/inactivation of SARS-CoV-2 due to their great surface chemical structures, easy to-functionalization, biocompatibility, and low toxicity. According to exclusive inherent properties, carbon-based nanomaterials are promising candidates for targeted antiviral drug delivery and the inhibitory effects against pathogenic viruses based on photothermal effects or reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation. These high-stability nanomaterials exhibited unique physicochemical properties, providing efficient nanoplatforms for optical and electrochemical sensing and diagnostic applications with high sensitivity and selectivity. Up to now, these materials have been used for the fabrication of diagnostic kits, different types of personal protective equipment (PPE) such as anti-viral masks, vaccines, self-cleaning surfaces, and other subjects. This review article explores the most recent developments in carbon-based nanomaterials' diagnostic and therapeutic potential towards SARS-CoV-2 detection and inhibition, different mechanisms, challenges and benefits of the carbon-based nanomaterials.

Nanosponges: An overlooked promising strategy to combat SARS-CoV-2.

Among explored nanomaterials, nanosponge-based systems have exhibited inhibitory effects for the biological neutralization of, and antiviral delivery against, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). More studies could pave the path for clarification of their biological neutralization mechanisms as well as the assessment of their long-term biocompatibility and biosafety issues before clinical translational studies. In this review, we discuss recent advances pertaining to antiviral delivery and inhibitory effects of nanosponges against SARS-CoV-2, focusing on important challenges and opportunities. Finally, as promising approaches for recapitulating the complex structure of different organs/tissues of the body, we discuss the use of 3D in vitro models to investigate the mechanism of SARS-CoV-2 infection and to find therapeutic targets to better manage and eradicate coronavirus 2019 (COVID-19).

Quantum dots against SARS-CoV-2: diagnostic and therapeutic potentials.

The application of quantum dots (QDs) for detecting and treating various types of coronaviruses is very promising, as their low toxicity and high surface performance make them superior among other nanomaterials; in conjugation with fluorescent probes they are promising semiconductor nanomaterials for the detection of various cellular processes and viral infections. In view of the successful results for inhibiting SARS-CoV-2, functional QDs could serve eminent role in the growth of safe nanotherapy for the cure of viral infections in the near future; their large surface areas help bind numerous molecules post-synthetically. Functionalized QDs with high functionality, targeted selectivity, stability and less cytotoxicity can be employed for highly sensitive co-delivery and imaging/diagnosis. Besides, due to the importance of safety and toxicity issues, QDs prepared from plant sources (e.g. curcumin) are much more attractive, as they provide good biocompatibility and low toxicity. In this review, the recent developments pertaining to the diagnostic and inhibitory potentials of QDs against SARS-CoV-2 are deliberated including important challenges and future outlooks. © 2022 Society of Chemical Industry (SCI).

Important Roles of Oligo- and Polysaccharides against SARS-CoV-2: Recent Advances

The severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2)-initiated outbreak of COVID-19 has spread rapidly around the world, posing a huge threat to public health. Natural oligo- and polysaccharides with low toxicity, good sustainability, high biocompatibility, respectable safety, immune regulation, and antiviral activity can be employed as promising candidates for the prevention and inhibition of viral infections, especially COVID-19. Glycosaminoglycans, marine polysaccharides, terrestrial plant polysaccharides, and some others have exhibited potential antiviral activity against pathogenic viruses, in the format of polysaccharide-centered vaccine adjuvants, nano-based structures, drug conveyance platforms, etc. In this review, significant recent advancements pertaining to the antiviral applications of oligo- and polysaccharides against SARS-CoV-2 are highlighted, including important challenges and future perspectives.

Potential inhibitors of SARS-CoV-2: recent advances.

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) appeared in 2019 and is the causative agent of the new pandemic viral disease COVID-19. The outbreak of COVID-19 infection is affecting the entire world, thus many researchers and scientists are desperately looking for suitable vaccines and treatment options. Indeed, researches to find potential inhibitors of SARS-CoV-2 are mainly focussed on targeting virus-host interactions or inhibiting viral assembly. Additionally, drugs and other therapeutic agents that modulate broad-spectrum host innate immune responses or interfere with signalling pathways involved in viral replication are important. These drugs may be capable of engaging host receptors or proteases utilised for viral entry or may impact the endocytosis pathway. 3CLpro (3-chymotrypsin-like protease), PLpro (papain-like protease), RdRp (RNA-dependent RNA polymerase), S protein (viral spike glycoprotein), TMPRSS2 (transmembrane protease serine 2), ACE2 (angiotensin-converting enzyme 2), and AT2 (angiotensin AT2 receptor) are important targets. With no approved therapies, this pandemic illustrates the urgent need for safe and broad-spectrum antiviral agents and strategies against SARS-CoV-2 and future pathogenic viruses. In this review, we discussed about the recent trends and important challenges regarding the potential inhibitors, antiviral drugs and nanomaterials screened against SARS-CoV-2.

Nanomaterials and Nanotechnology-Associated Innovations against Viral Infections with a Focus on Coronaviruses.

Viral infections have recently emerged not only as a health threat to people but rapidly became the cause of universal fatality on a large scale. Nanomaterials comprising functionalized nanoparticles (NPs) and quantum dots and nanotechnology-associated innovative detection methods, vaccine design, and nanodrug production have shown immense promise for interfacing with pathogenic viruses and restricting their entrance into cells. These viruses have been scrutinized using rapid diagnostic detection and therapeutic interventional options against the caused infections including vaccine development for prevention and control. Coronaviruses, namely SARS-CoV, MERS-CoV, and SARS-CoV-2, have endangered human life, and the COVID-19 (caused by SARS-CoV-2) outbreak has become a perilous challenge to public health globally with huge accompanying morbidity rates. Thus, it is imperative to expedite the drug and vaccine development efforts that would help mitigate this pandemic. In this regard, smart and innovative nano-based technologies and approaches encompassing applications of green nanomedicine, bio-inspired methods, multifunctional bioengineered nanomaterials, and biomimetic drug delivery systems/carriers can help resolve the critical issues regarding detection, prevention, and treatment of viral infections. This perspective review expounds recent nanoscience advancements for the detection and treatment of viral infections with focus on coronaviruses and encompasses nano-based formulations and delivery platforms, nanovaccines, and promising methods for clinical diagnosis, especially regarding SARS-CoV-2.